Automotive Safety 2025: Integrating ASPICE 4.0, ISO 26262 & Cybersecurity

 

Let's Know About Next-Generation Automotive Safety: Mastering the Integration of ASPICE 4.0, ISO 26262, and Cybersecurity in 2025

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Executive Summary

The automotive world is racing towards a software-defined future, where cars are computers on wheels. But with innovation comes risk. In 2024, security experts identified 530 new automotive vulnerabilities – more than ever before. To keep drivers safe, regulators and industry are demanding rigorous standards and processes that blend functional safety with cybersecurity from day one.

This article unpacks how automotive manufacturers are responding with ASPICE 4.0, ISO 26262, ISO/SAE 21434, and related standards – weaving them together into a coherent safety-and-security framework. We’ll explore why each standard matters, how they’re evolving (like the new ASPICE 4.0 process model), and how they fit together. We’ll also look at real-world threats (car hacks, sensor spoofing, supply chain attacks) and explain practical strategies to stay compliant and resilient in 2025 and beyond.

Along the way, you’ll see key facts and figures, such as the booming automotive cybersecurity market (forecast to hit $18.88B by 2034) and global regulations (UN ECE R155/R156 enforced in 64 countries). By the end, you’ll have a clear picture of the integrated approach driving next-generation automotive safety – and why it’s essential for building trust in software-defined vehicles.

The Evolution of Automotive Safety Standards in 2025

As vehicles become more software-centric and autonomous, traditional safety standards are expanding and new ones are emerging. In 2023–2025, three main pillars stand out: ASPICE 4.0 (for development process quality), ISO 26262 (functional safety), and ISO/SAE 21434 (cybersecurity). Let’s break down each.

ASPICE 4.0: Revolutionary Process Assessment Model

The Automotive SPICE model (ASPICE) has long been the gold standard for assessing software development processes in automotive projects. In December 2023, the new ASPICE 4.0 was released, marking a major upgrade. It reflects the reality that cars today are not just mechanical systems, but complex cyber-physical systems.

Expanded Scope and Architecture

ASPICE 4.0 broadens the process reference model to cover the latest tech:

• Machine Learning Engineering (MLE) processes for AI-driven components (like perception and decision-making in autonomous cars).

• Hardware Engineering (HWE) processes to jointly handle electronics and mechanical parts in zonal architectures.

• A brand-new Validation (VAL.1) process group for system-level testing and verification.

• Support processes like SUP.11 for data management in ML applications.

In simple terms, ASPICE 4.0 adds the missing pieces for AI, sensors, and big data. This means cars with neural nets or advanced mechatronics can be developed under the same disciplined framework as traditional software.

Enhanced Process Structure

ASPICE 4.0 also reorganizes how processes are assessed:

• It shifts from focusing on “work products” (documents) to “information items”, emphasizing the actual results of processes. The idea is to judge by what matters (like delivered functionality), not just paperwork.

• It introduces a three-tier scoping system (Base, Plug-in, Flex) so manufacturers can tailor assessments to their project type.

• Crucially, Generic Practice 2.1.1 now explicitly requires strategic planning at Level 2. In practice, this means teams must define a clear process strategy (instead of just ad-hoc execution) for the first time, making development more proactive.

• Overall, ASPICE 4.0 aims for greater repeatability. Assessments are designed to be less subjective, enabling more consistent evaluations of suppliers and teams.

Think of ASPICE 4.0 like upgrading the car’s engine to handle new fuel: it accommodates modern tech, ensures teams think ahead, and streamlines how we check that processes are truly working.

ISO 26262: Functional Safety in the Age of Autonomy

ISO 26262 is the cornerstone of functional safety for automotive electrical/electronic (E/E) systems. The current edition is ISO 26262:2018, but the standard is evolving to tackle new challenges as cars get more autonomous.

ASIL-D Compliance for Critical Systems

At its core, ISO 26262 uses Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASILs) to classify how critical a system is (A through D, with D being the strictest). ADAS features like emergency braking or steering control often need ASIL-D to ensure virtually zero failure risk.

In the context of self-driving cars, ISO 26262 demands even more rigor for high-impact systems. That means:

• Stricter requirements on both hardware and software development. For instance, hardware architectures must be tolerant to failures (e.g. redundant sensors), and software must follow rigorous development processes (traceability, code reviews, formal methods).

• End-to-end safety analysis that spans across all vehicle functions. The goal is to prevent systematic failures (like a bug) and mitigate random hardware faults.

In practical terms, auto engineers working on a Level-4 autonomous driving system must apply ISO 26262’s highest measures to anything affecting braking, steering, or sensor processing, often in concert with simulation and real-world testing.

Emerging Standards Integration

Because autonomy and AI bring new risks, ISO 26262 is being complemented by related standards:

• ISO/PAS 8800 (2024): A new guideline for the functional safety of AI in road vehicles. PAS 8800 helps manufacturers apply ISO 26262 principles to AI components, by identifying AI-specific hazards (like wrong object recognition) and providing methods to assess them.

• ISO 21448 (SOTIF): Focuses on the Safety of the Intended Functionality – i.e. handling “known unknowns” like perception limitations or adverse road conditions. It doesn’t replace ISO 26262, but fills gaps (for example, it guides how to assure an automated braking system works safely even if sensors misinterpret something).

• ISO 24089 (2023): The new standard for software update engineering. With so many car updates happening over-the-air now, ISO 24089 ensures updates themselves don’t break safety or security. It harmonizes update processes with UNECE R156 (the upcoming regulation on updates).

In short, think of ISO 26262 as the safety baseline, with PAS 8800, 21448, 24089, etc. stacking on top to cover AI, autonomy, and connectivity. Together they guide engineers to systematically eliminate faults and anticipate hazards, even in next-gen vehicles.

Cybersecurity Framework: ISO/SAE 21434 and Regulatory Compliance

As cars become connected, cybersecurity is no longer optional. The standard ISO/SAE 21434:2021 has emerged as the automotive industry’s cyber-hygiene bible. It covers the full life cycle of automotive cybersecurity: from concept to decommission, including risk assessment, management systems, and continuous monitoring.

Regulatory Enforcement Landscape

Governments are codifying these requirements:

• The UN’s R155 (cybersecurity management) and R156 (software update management) regulations came into force for new vehicle approvals in July 2022, and by July 2024 they applied to all vehicles. These regulations effectively mandate a cybersecurity management system for cars (CSMS) and safe update practices.

• In the US, a landmark rule (effective March 16, 2025) will ban the use of certain Chinese or Russian components in connected vehicles. This targets supply chain risks by prohibiting foreign-adversary hardware and software in critical vehicle systems.

• Many other markets have or are working on similar rules (for example, Japan has updated its road traffic laws to allow Level 4 autonomy under strict safety norms).

For auto-makers, this means you can’t just “hope” software is secure – regulators will audit your cybersecurity engineering processes. Meeting ISO/SAE 21434 (plus these regulations) is now a compliance requirement in dozens of countries.

Second Edition Developments

The first edition of ISO/SAE 21434 was published in 2021. The industry is already looking ahead:

• A Second Edition of 21434 is expected to start development by 2025 and possibly publish around 2028. This will incorporate lessons learned from deployments and clarify any ambiguities.

• Meanwhile, supporting standards are in the works. Notably:

  • ISO/SAE PAS 8475 (focused on Cybersecurity Assurance Levels, i.e. threat categories) is slated for release by late 2025.

  • ISO/SAE TR 8477 (guidance on verification & validation of cybersecurity) is also planned.

These will help standardize how to assign threat levels to components and how to test the overall cybersecurity measures. In essence, the automotive cybersecurity toolkit is expanding to match the connected-car ecosystem’s complexity.

Current Threat Landscape and Emerging Challenges

Modern vehicles face cyber and safety threats from multiple directions. Let’s look at where hackers and system failures can come from.

Software-Defined Vehicle Vulnerabilities

A software-defined vehicle (SDV) is like a smartphone on wheels – feature updates, connectivity, and complex software control everything from brakes to infotainment. But this digitalization also massively expands the attack surface.

Attack Surface Expansion

Every connected component is a door that can be left ajar:

• Onboard Systems: Modern cars have dozens of ECUs (electronic control units) and interfaces. The in-vehicle network (like CAN bus, Ethernet backbones) is a ripe target. For example, a CAN injection attack could spoof steering or braking commands.

• Cloud and Remote Services: Features like navigation, streaming, and telematics rely on cloud servers. Vulnerabilities in these online systems can be exploited at scale. VicOne’s 2025 cybersecurity report highlights that “Onboard and cloud infrastructures represent the largest vulnerable domains”.

• Supply Chain: Cars today are built from millions of parts sourced globally. Third-party software (e.g. infotainment apps) and microcontrollers from various vendors introduce hidden risks. Reports show 1,564 supply-chain vulnerabilities and 308 third-party integration issues documented recently.

• Third-Party Integrations: Think of using an external map service or OTA framework; if those are compromised, the car inherits the flaw.

In summary, hackers have more targets than ever: every bit of digital connectivity in the car or its ecosystem. Gone are the days when a car’s only risk was engine trouble. Now, a flaw in a Wi-Fi module or an open port in the cloud could be exploited to crash or commandeer a vehicle.

Critical Vulnerability Statistics

To grasp the scale, consider some eye-opening stats:

• 2,271 SDV-related security vulnerabilities were reported between 2014–2024.

• In 2024 alone, 530 new automotive vulnerabilities were identified – an all-time high in a single year.

• A large share of these issues are severe: in one study, ~57% of incidents were rated “high” or “massive” risk.

• Over 100 ransomware attacks targeted the auto industry in 2024, crippling dealerships and car-makers alike.

• Attackers are increasingly using AI tools to find exploits faster, so the threat is only ramping up.

These numbers underscore why integrating safety and security is non-negotiable. Each vulnerability could translate to a car behaving dangerously. The industry must assume that software flaws are inevitable and focus on resilience and rapid response.

ADAS and Autonomous Driving Security Risks

As cars gain sensors and autonomy, new classes of risks emerge. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) rely on cameras, radar, LiDAR, and radar to “see” the world. If these sensors are fooled, safety systems can fail.

Sensor Security Vulnerabilities

Imagine your car’s camera or LiDAR being tricked by a malicious actor:

• Attackers can spoof sensors: for example, projecting fake objects on the road or replaying intercepted signals. A hacked camera might make the car see a phantom vehicle and brake unexpectedly.

• Signal jamming is another threat: by broadcasting interference on LIDAR or radar frequencies, an attacker could blind a vehicle’s perception.

• Even subtle things like altering street signs (e.g. putting stickers on speed limit signs) can confuse vision-based ADAS.

LeddarTech’s research notes that “ADAS systems rely on cameras, radar, LiDAR … attackers may target these sensors to feed false data, leading to incorrect decision making”. In practice, a sensor hack could disable braking or steering in a critical moment, turning a high-tech safety feature into a hazard.

Communication Network Threats

Modern cars use complex networks to talk internally and externally:

• Internal Networks: Protocols like CAN bus lack authentication. In some proofs-of-concept, researchers used a single compromised module to send malicious commands on the bus, affecting engine, brakes, etc.

• Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X): Cars communicating with each other and infrastructure can be disrupted by man-in-the-middle attacks if not properly secured.

• APIs and Cloud Services: Many car features (like smartphone apps, remote lock/unlock) rely on internet APIs. A flaw here could leak user data or allow unauthorized control.

In short, every channel of communication is a risk. That’s why an integrated strategy must include cybersecurity at every layer of the vehicle’s architecture, not just the obvious “online” parts.

Integrated Framework Implementation Strategy

We’ve covered the key standards (process, safety, security) and threats. Now how do OEMs and suppliers actually put it all together? The answer is a three-pillar approach, weaving ASPICE, ISO 26262, and ISO 21434 into one cohesive workflow.

Three-Pillar Integration Approach

Think of this as a safety-security bridge:

Foundation Layer: ASPICE 4.0

ASPICE 4.0 sits at the base, providing a standardized development lifecycle and quality framework. It ensures that whether you’re making firmware for an ECU, a sensor algorithm, or an app, you follow disciplined processes. Key benefits:

• Traceability: Every requirement, change, or test has its place in the process model, making it easier to audit compliance (to ISO 26262 and ISO 21434).

• Lifecycle Integration: By defining stages like concept, design, implementation, and maintenance clearly, ASPICE helps embed safety and security tasks throughout development.

• Quality Assurance: Generic practices in ASPICE enforce practices like configuration management, reviews, and testing, which boost both reliability and security.

In practice, a project would start by setting ASPICE-based plans (Design, Dev, Test) that include safety and security checkpoints (from the other layers). ASPICE gives a “source of truth” for how work should be done.

Safety Layer: ISO 26262 Functional Safety

On top of that foundation, ISO 26262 adds the specific requirements for functional safety. This means:

• ASIL Classification: Early in the project, safety analysts use ISO 26262 to categorize features (e.g. is lane-keeping A, B, C, or D?). That ASIL rating drives how many resources and safeguards are needed.

• V-Model Integration: The V-model (from concept to verification) can be enhanced with cybersecurity tasks: for example, security requirements are identified in parallel with safety requirements, and verification tests include security attack scenarios.

• HW/SW Co-Development: Since safety and cybersecurity overlap (e.g. a sensor failure could be malicious), hardware design (like redundant circuits) is done alongside safe software architecture.

For example, if you have a collision-avoidance system (ASIL-D), ISO 26262 tells you to do thorough hazard analysis, fault tree analysis, rigorous code reviews, etc. Meanwhile, ASPICE processes ensure each of those steps is documented and executed.

Security Layer: ISO/SAE 21434 Cybersecurity

The topmost layer is ISO/SAE 21434 for cybersecurity. Key elements include:

• Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment (TARA): Early in design, the team identifies threats (like spoofing, malware, supply chain attacks) and ranks risks.

• Cybersecurity Management System (CSMS): Similar to ISO 26262’s safety culture, a CSMS ensures the organization has policies, training, and procedures for cyber issues.

• Incident Response & Monitoring: Plans for detecting breaches and responding (e.g. security patch updates) are also mandated.

• Continuous Processes: Unlike ISO 26262’s mostly upfront tasks, 21434 expects ongoing monitoring (like analyzing field data for new vulnerabilities).

The idea is to bake in cybersecurity just like safety. For instance, a threat analysis might show the brake ECU firmware needs integrity checks – that drives security requirements handled through the ASPICE process and verified with ISO 26262 tools.

Implementation Best Practices for 2025

To make all this work in real life, companies need both organizational and technical tactics:

Organizational Readiness

• Build cross-functional teams. Safety, security, and development experts should collaborate from day one, not operate in silos. Co-locating these teams fosters a shared mindset.

• Train multi-domain experts. Engineers who understand both functional safety and cybersecurity are rare, but invaluable. Investing in training or joint certification programs pays off.

• Use unified toolchains. Tools that manage requirements, tests, and issues should integrate safety and security tasks. That way, a requirement tagged “ASIL-D, High Security” flows into both ISO 26262 and ISO 21434 processes automatically.

Technical Implementation

• Early Integration: Don’t bolt on safety or security at the end. Identify safety and security requirements at the start (using TARA and hazard analysis) and put them into the system design.

• Shared Risk Assessment: Let safety and security teams use a combined risk assessment. For example, a compromised sensor has both a safety risk (false data) and a security risk. Analyze them together to avoid rework.

• Continuous Monitoring: Post-launch, monitor vehicle data for anomalies. OTA updates (governed by ISO 24089/R156) can patch vulnerabilities and tweak safety controls as new threats emerge.

Regulatory Compliance Strategy

• Prepare for UNECE R155/R156 audits by documenting your Cybersecurity Management System (CSMS) and Software Update Management System (SUMS). Keep records of all risk analyses, threat models, and mitigation steps.

• For ISO 26262, plan for third-party certification of safety-critical components (especially hardware). Demonstrating ASIL-D compliance will likely be a competitive differentiator.

• Align globally: while R155/R156 cover many regions, be mindful of local laws. For instance, meeting EU GSR2’s ADAS requirements may involve extra features beyond ISO 26262. Plan releases and certificates country by country as needed.

2025 Regulatory Landscape and Market Implications

The push for integrated safety/security is not just good practice – it’s mandated globally. And the market reflects it.

Global Regulatory Convergence

Governments worldwide are unifying rules to elevate automotive safety and security:

• UN ECE Regulations: Over 64 countries have adopted UNECE R155 (cybersecurity) and R156 (software updates). These require, by July 2024, that every new car have both a robust cybersecurity management system and the ability to securely receive updates.

• Regional Rules:

  • European Union: The General Safety Regulation II (GSR2, EU 2019/2144) now mandates ADAS features (like ISA, AEB, lane-keeping) on new cars from July 2022/2024 phases. It also requires Electronic Data Recorders and sets a framework for security (though cyber specifics are more in R155/156).

  • United States: Aside from the March 2025 Connected Vehicles Rule banning certain foreign components, the US NHTSA is promoting its own voluntary cybersecurity best practices. It’s also tying funding to safety performance (e.g. IRIS+ rating).

  • China: The new GB 44495-2024 regulation (Cybersecurity Guide for Vehicle Industry) was published August 2024 and goes into force in stages (new vehicles by 2026, all by 2028). It localizes R155/21434 principles for China’s market.

  • Japan: Japan’s ministry has updated safety standards for automated vehicles (level 4) and is encouraging cybersecurity via guidance documents, aligning with ISO standards.

In practice, this means car-makers planning global launches must simultaneously satisfy multiple frameworks. The upside is that the outcome – safer, more secure vehicles – is worth the complexity.

Market Impact and Industry Response

How is the market reacting?

• The automotive cybersecurity market is booming. It was about $4.56 billion in 2024 and is forecast to skyrocket to $18.88 billion by 2034 (15.3% CAGR). Spending on security (software, encryption, monitoring) is no longer a niche line item – it’s critical path.

• North America is leading investment (over 36% market share in 2024). One report pegs the US market at ~$1.62 billion in 2025, reflecting aggressive federal standards and industry support.

• Trend indicators: Analysts predict by 2029 over 90% of new cars will be software-defined, underscoring how foundational these changes are. Also, forecasts estimate 2.5 billion connected cars on roads by 2030. That scale means a small percentage of incidents is still millions of affected vehicles.

All this growth comes with challenges. A recent study found a 28% cybersecurity job vacancy rate globally – meaning talent shortages could hinder implementation. Companies are scrambling to train engineers who can juggle software, hardware, safety, and security expertise.

Nonetheless, most OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers recognize this is strategic. Those who nail the integrated approach will gain trust from regulators and customers, while also avoiding costly recalls or breaches.

Future-Proofing Automotive Safety and Security

Looking ahead, technology and strategy continue to evolve:

Emerging Technology Integration

• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: ASPICE 4.0’s new MLE processes and ISO/PAS 8800 acknowledge that future cars will use AI for perception and decision-making. Companies should use ASPICE-aligned processes for AI development, including data management and model validation. Safety analyses must cover AI unpredictability (e.g. what if the vision AI fails in snow?).

• Edge Computing and V2X: Cars increasingly share data with each other and infrastructure (5G, edge servers). Future frameworks should cover cybersecurity of V2X protocols, ensuring one hacked car doesn’t compromise the whole platoon. (Standards for V2X security are still emerging.)

• Platooning & Cooperation: Coordinated driving (trucks in convoy, cars in smart intersections) demands shared safety protocols. This will require multi-vehicle testing, synchronized security measures, and possibly new regulations.

Advanced Security Measures

• Zero-Trust Architecture: The industry is moving toward “never trust, always verify.” This means every component must authenticate to every other (even inside the car), and communications are encrypted end-to-end. Implementing on-board HSMs (hardware security modules) and secure boot sequences prevents unauthorized code from running. We’ll likely see micro-segmentation in vehicle networks to quarantine potential breaches.

• Quantum-Resistant Cryptography: It’s early, but some OEMs are already experimenting with post-quantum algorithms for vehicle-to-cloud communication, future-proofing against tomorrow’s threats. Even quantum random number generators for key generation might become an option.

• Continuous Monitoring & Threat Intelligence: Cars will have embedded logging and anomaly detection, alerting OEMs to attacks in the wild. Similar to how data centers use SIEM tools, auto-makers will develop Automotive Security Operation Centers (Auto-SOCs).

These advanced measures will eventually trickle down to production vehicles. Early movers might start with military/defense vehicles or high-end brands, but by 2030 every connected car should have robust cryptography and real-time monitoring onboard.

Industry Best Practices and Recommendations

To tie it all together, here are some broad best practices for any organization navigating this space:

Organizational Excellence Framework

• Leadership and Governance: Strong buy-in from top management is essential. Companies often create a dedicated CISO role for automotive cybersecurity and set up a board-level safety/security committee. This ensures decisions (e.g. budget for new training or tools) align with strategic goals.

• Workforce Development: With talent shortages, firms should invest in training programs that cover the intersection of standards (e.g. courses on ISO 26262+21434). Partnerships with universities or certification bodies can help cultivate skilled engineers. Some automakers are even sponsoring specialized degree programs in automotive functional safety or cybersecurity.

• Cross-Functional Collaboration: Break down silos. Have joint planning meetings between software, hardware, safety, and security teams. Use shared terminology (ASPICE 4.0’s new lexicon helps) so everyone understands system, subsystem, component, etc.

Technical Implementation Guidelines

• Unified Requirements Management: Tools like DOORS or Jama can manage both safety and security requirements in one place, flagging overlaps or conflicts. For example, a single requirement might say “Sensor module must withstand spoofing to SIL 4 / ASIL-D level.”

• Integrated Testing: Develop combined test strategies. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) setups can now simulate cyber-attacks as well as hardware failures. Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) pipelines should include security scans and safety regression tests.

• Supply Chain Security: Vet your suppliers: require evidence of their process maturity (ASPICE levels), ISO 26262 certification, and cybersecurity practices. Use hardware authentication (signed firmware, secure boot keys) to ensure parts haven’t been tampered with. Regularly audit suppliers for emerging risks.

By adopting these practices, companies turn compliance into a competitive advantage: they build vehicles that not only meet regulations, but are demonstrably robust. And that builds trust with customers and regulators alike.

Conclusion: Building Trust Through Integrated Excellence

The convergence of ASPICE 4.0, ISO 26262, and ISO/SAE 21434 is more than a checklist – it reflects a new paradigm in automotive engineering. Modern vehicles can no longer treat safety and security as separate boxes. They must be designed hand-in-glove, from the process level to the component level.

In 2025 and beyond, success will go to manufacturers who institutionalize this integrated approach. Those organizations will be able to confidently say their vehicles are “safe by design and secure by default.” They’ll avoid last-minute scrambles to patch holes or meet audits, and instead focus on innovation: rolling out autonomous features and connected services with confidence.

The data is clear: threats are growing fast, and regulations are tightening globally. But with ASPICE 4.0’s improved processes, ISO 26262’s proven safety methods, and ISO 21434’s cybersecurity framework all working together, the automotive industry has the tools it needs. Vehicles built under this regime will be safer on our roads and more resilient to tomorrow’s challenges.

As the automotive saying goes, “You can’t improve what you don’t measure or manage.” By mastering these integrated standards, organizations measure and manage both safety and security comprehensively. The result? Cars that drivers can trust – the ultimate goal of next-generation automotive safety and security.

FAQs

Q1: What is ASPICE 4.0 and why is it important?
A: ASPICE 4.0 (Automotive SPICE) is the latest version of a process assessment model for automotive software development. Released Dec 2023, it expands scope to include Machine Learning (MLE) and Hardware (HWE) processes and a system validation process. It also improves how assessments are done (focusing on "information items" and requiring strategic plans at Level 2). In practice, ASPICE 4.0 ensures teams follow high-quality development lifecycles, which is crucial for building safe, reliable vehicle software and demonstrating process compliance in audits.

Q2: How do ISO 26262 and ISO/SAE 21434 complement each other?
A: ISO 26262 is about functional safety – preventing hazards due to system failures – while ISO/SAE 21434 is about cybersecurity – protecting the vehicle from malicious attacks. Together, they ensure a vehicle is both safe from faults and secure from hackers. For example, a brake-by-wire system would use ISO 26262 to handle potential hardware failures, and ISO/SAE 21434 to defend against unauthorized remote commands. Bridging both means you consider all ways a system could fail – accidentally or intentionally.

Q3: Why are UN ECE R155 and R156 significant for automakers?
A: UNECE R155 (cybersecurity management) and R156 (software update management) are global regulations that require manufacturers to implement a Cyber Security Management System (CSMS) and ensure safe, secure software updates on cars. Since July 2024 they apply to all new vehicles in many countries. This means automakers must follow practices like threat analysis, incident response plans, and secure OTA updates. Compliance is mandatory for type approval, so these rules essentially force the integration of ISO 21434 principles into every vehicle program.

Q4: What are the biggest security threats for modern vehicles?
A: Modern cars face threats across multiple fronts. Key issues include: on-board network attacks (like injecting malicious messages on the CAN bus), remote exploits of cloud-connected services, and physical attacks (like USB or Bluetooth hacks). Autonomous vehicles add sensor spoofing (fooling cameras/radar) as a major concern. Supply chain vulnerabilities (compromised hardware or third-party software) and ransomware against carmakers are also on the rise (over 100 ransomware incidents in auto in 2024). Essentially, any digital interface on a car is a potential entry point, so comprehensive protection is needed.

Q5: How can manufacturers future-proof safety and security?
A: Future-proofing involves both technology and culture. Technically, adopting zero-trust architectures (where every component verifies the other) and preparing for post-quantum cryptography are forward-looking steps. It also means embracing standards on the horizon (like AI safety ISO/PAS 8800) and building flexible platforms (e.g. zonal architectures) that can be updated. Culturally, it means continuous learning: updating processes as new threats emerge and training engineers constantly. Organizations should also invest in monitoring capabilities (like anomaly detection in fleets). Ultimately, it’s about building vehicles that can evolve and be defended over their entire lifespan.